TIBIYA-FIBULA Posterior and Anterior Anatomy

TIBIYA FIBULA - Posterior and Anterior drawing Anatomy

Human leg FEMER TIBIYA FIBULA - Anatomy and Physiology

Human Leg FEMER TIBIYA FIBULA - Anatomy and Physiology

14 Facial Bones - Human Anatomy & Physiology

14 Facial Bones - Human Anatomy & Physiology

Hormones : Anatomy & Physiology

Hormones : Anatomy & Physiology

Human body has different glands that secret Hormones (liquid substance), which are essential for the different body functions.

Adrenaline Hormone is secreted from the adrenal glands. It is secreted directly into the blood and then carried to different parts of the body.

On the other hand, plants have hormones that control and regulate their directional growth.

Iodine is essential for the thyroid gland that makes thyroxin hormone.

Further, Iodine is an essential element for the synthesis of thyroxin.

Deficiency of Iodine, that might cause goiter.

The term "goiter" refers to the abnormal expansion of the thyroid gland (resulting into swollen neck).

Thyroxin Hormone regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism in the body and provide the best balance for body growth.

Growth hormone, which is secreted by the pituitary gland, regulates growth and development of the body.

The deficiency of growth hormone in childhood causes dwarfism short height.

During the age of 10-12, there are certain physical change in the bodies of children, which is caused by the secretion of testosterone in boys and oestrogen in girls.

It is significant difference between male and female body i.e. males have testis (secretes Testosterone Hormone) and females have ovary (secretes Oestrogen Hormone).

Insulin is a hormone, which is produced by the pancreas and helps in regulating the sugar levels of blood.

If insulin is not secreted in proper amounts or on a proper time, the sugar level in the blood rises, which may cause different harmful effects in the body.

Role of Bacteria in nitrogen cycle : Anatomy & Physiology

Role of Bacteria in nitrogen cycle : Anatomy & Physiology

Nitrogen fixation:

(1) Many free-living soil inhabiting bacteria such as, Azotobacter (aerobic), Clostridium (anaerobic), etc. have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.

(2) The other group of nitrogen fixing bacteria lives in symbiotic association with other plants.

(3) The most important symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria is Rhizobium spp.

(4) The various species of Rhizobium inhabit different leguminous plants. For example, R. leguminosarium infects soyabeans, etc.

(5) They develop root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia in symbiotic association with leguminous plants.

(6) The fixed nitrogen is partly taken up by the leguminous plants and metabolised.

(7) A part of fixed nitrogen is diffused out into the surrounding soil.

Ammonification:
(1) The nitrogenous compounds of the dead remains of plants, animals and their excretory products are decomposed into ammonia by a number of bacteria and other microorganisms.

(2) The conversion of nitrogenous organic compounds into ammonia is termed as ammonification.

(3) It is carried by many ammonifying bacteria such as Bacillus ramosus, B. vulgaris, B. mycoides, etc.

Nitrification:
(1) Many bacteria enhance the nitrogen fertility of soil by converting ammonium compounds to nitrites (e.g., Nitrosomonas) and nitrites into nitrates (e.g., Nitrobacter).

(2) The Nitrosomonas group oxidizes ammonia into nitrite –

(3)The Nitrobacter group oxidizes nitrite to nitrates –

Denitrification:
The nitrates and ammonia are converted to nitrous oxide and finally to nitrogen gas by several denitrifying bacteria, e.g., Pseudomonas fluorescence, P. denitrificans, Bacillus subtilis, Thiobacillus denitirficans, etc.

Useful activities

(i) Decay of organic wastes:

Many saprotrophic bacteria act as natural scavengers by continuously removing the harmful organic wastes (i.e., dead remains of animals and plants) from man's environment. They decompose the organic matter by putrifaction and decay. The simple compounds produced as a result of decomposition and decay (viz., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, ammonia, etc.) are either released back into the environment for recycling or absorbed by the plants as food. Thus, the bacteria play duel role by disposing of the dead bodies and wastes of organisms and by increasing the fertility of soil.

(ii) Role in improving soil fertility:

Saprotrophic bacteria present in soil perform various activities for their survival. Some of these activities improve the fertility of soil by formation of humus, manure, etc.

(a) Humus:

The microbial decomposition of organic matter and mineralization results in the formation of complex amorphous substance called humus. The humus improves the aeration, water holding capacity, solubility of soil minerals, oxidation-reduction potential and buffering capacity of the soil.

(b) Composting:

It is conversion of farm refuse, dung and other organic wastes into manure by the activity of saprotrophic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus stearothermophilus, Clostridium thermocellum, Thermomonospora spp, etc.)

(c) Adding sulphates:

A few sulphur bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) add sulphur into the soil by converting H2S into sulphates.

(iii) Sewage, disposal:

Ability of anaerobic bacteria to purify the organic matter is used in the the sewage disposal system of cities. The faeces are stored in covered reservoirs and allowed to purify. The solid matter is decomposed into liquidy sludge which is passed through coarse filters. The effluent is finally purified and drained out into the river or used as fertilizer in the fields. The common bacteria involved in sewage disposal are – Coliforms (E. coli), Streptococci, Clostridium, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, etc.

(iv) Role in Industry:

Useful activities of various bacteria are employed in the production of a number of industrial products.

Proteins - Anatomy & Physiology

Proteins - Anatomy & Physiology

✍️Introduction

Proteins, which are basically biomolecules, play wide range of functions in the body of a living organism.

Proteins are made up of tiny elements of different types of amino acids.

A sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is known particularly by the sequence of a gene; gene is encoded in the genetic code.

After formation, proteins exist for a fixed period of time and are then degraded and recycled.

The proteins get recycled by the cell's machinery by the process of protein turnover.

Most of the proteins contain linear polymers made up of series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids.

The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are connected by peptide bonds.

The peptide bond, usually, has two resonance forms, which contribute some double-bond characters.

✍️Protein Structure

Most of the proteins illustrate unique 3-dimensional structures.

However, proteins have not a rigid structure, but rather, proteins may vary between several related structures especially when they perform their functions.

✍️Types of Protein

Enzymes − enzymes play important role especially during the breakdown of molecules. Enzymes are also required for the digestion and growth of the cell.

Structural Proteins − such type of proteins provide strength to cells, tissues, and organs.

Signaling Proteins − Such proteins facilitate cells to communicate with each other by providing signals.

Defensive Proteins − Such proteins help organisms to fight with infection and support damaged tissue in healing fast.

Hormone − Some hormones are proteins that help in metabolic activities.

Important terms in Biology for NEET - Anatomy & Physiology

Important terms in Biology for NEET : for Medical Exams

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic information.

RNA: Ribonucleic acid, a molecule that plays a key role in protein synthesis.

Protein: A macromolecule made up of amino acids that carries out a variety of functions in the cell.

Enzyme: A type of protein that catalyzes chemical reactions in the cell.

Cell membrane: The thin, flexible layer that surrounds all cells and regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.

Mitosis: The process by which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis: The process by which cells divide to produce gametes (sperm and eggs), each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.

Allele: One of two or more alternative forms of a gene.

Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence that can result in altered gene function or the creation of new alleles.

Natural selection: The process by which individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to the evolution of populations over time.

Adaptation: A trait or characteristic that increases an organism's fitness in its environment.

Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of organic compounds.

Cellular respiration: The process by which cells convert organic compounds into energy in the form of ATP.

Ecosystem: A community of living and non-living things that interact with each other and their environment.

Homeostasis: The ability of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment in the face of changing external conditions.

Evolution: The process by which species change over time as a result of genetic variation and natural selection.

Ecology: The study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment.

Biotechnology: The use of living organisms or their products to develop new products or processes.

Epidemiology: The study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations.

Chromosome: A structure made of DNA and protein that carries genetic information.

Cytoplasm: The gel-like substance inside a cell that contains organelles and other cell components.

Organelle: A specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function.

Nucleus: The control center of a cell that contains the cell's DNA.

Ribosome: The site of protein synthesis in a cell.

Mitochondria: The organelles responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration.

Chloroplast: The organelles in plant cells responsible for photosynthesis.

Cytoskeleton: The network of protein filaments that give a cell its shape and allow for movement.

Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of membranes in the cytoplasm that is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.

Golgi apparatus: An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or transport.

Lysosome: An organelle that contains enzymes for breaking down and recycling cellular waste.

Vacuole: A membrane-bound organelle that stores materials such as water, nutrients, and waste products.

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the molecule that carries energy within cells.

Aerobic respiration: The process of producing ATP in the presence of oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration: The process of producing ATP in the absence of oxygen.

HUMAN ANATOMY LENGTHS - Anatomy & Physiology

ANATOMY LENGTHS on Body

4cm long structures in the body

Inguinal canal
Anal canal
Female urethra
Auditory tube
Cystic duct
Optic nerve
Prostatic urethra
Left principle bronchus

5cm long structures in the body

Male larynx
Left primary bronchus
Parotid duct
Submandibular duct
Lateral lobe of thyroid gland
Testis
First part of duodenum
Neck of femur
Lateral wall of bony orbit
Medial wall of bony orbit

7.5cm long structures in the body

Anterior wall of vagina
Virgin uterus
Second part of duodenum
Bile duct

9cm long structures in the body

Appendix
Multiparous uterus
Posterior wall of vagina

11cm long structures in the body

Trachea
Kidney
Uterine tube
Third part of duodenum

12cm long structures in the body

Rectum
Spleen
Pharynx

15cm long structures in the body

Adductor canal
Ascending colon
Pancreas
Root of mesentery

25cm long structures in the body

Oesophagus
Descending colon
Ureter
Duodenum

45cm long structures in the body

Spinal cord
Thoracic duct
Transverse colon
Femur
Sartorius
Vas deferens

Control and Coordination - Anatomy & Physiology

Control and Coordination - Body and function

️Introduction

In multicellular organisms, following the general principles of body organization, some specialized tissues are used to provide the control and coordination activities.

️Nervous System

Nervous system is specialized system that provide control and coordination in animals.

All information, coming from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of some nerve cells, which are usually located in sense organs.

The information, acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell, sets off a chemical reaction that creates an electrical impulse.

This (electrical) impulse, which travels from the dendrite tip to the cell body, and then along the axon to its end of the axon, sets off the release of some chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and create a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next neuron.

Likewise, the nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or neurons, and is dedicated for carrying information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another.

Reflex Actions

If the nerves that detect heat, cold, or any such kind of more sensational element move muscles in a simpler way; so, the process of detecting the signal or the input and responding to it by an output action, is known as reflex action and such connection is known as a reflex arc.

️Human Brain

The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of the body is established by the peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves, which arise from the brain and spinal nerves.

The brain facilitates us to recognize, think, and take actions accordingly.

The brain is categorized into three major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain, mid-brain, and hind-brain.

Among these three parts (of the brain), fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain; further, fore-brain are specialized for hearing, smell, sight, etc.

When brain gives command, muscle moves – it happens because muscle cells have special proteins that change both their (muscle's) shape and arrangement in the cell in response to nervous electrical impulses.